and that He is the Lord of the heavens and the earth; for they already acknowledged this out of innate disposition, as has been noted about the pre-Islamic Arabs. For that reason, the Qur’anic verses addressing it are, for the most part, cast as rhetorical questions to elicit their admission, such as: “Is there any doubt about Allah, the Originator of the heavens and the earth?”; “Is He who creates like one who does not create?”; and “Is there any creator other than Allah?” From what has preceded you will have understood that the idolaters did not regard their idols and images as partners with Allah in lordship (rububiyya); that is, they never believed them to share with Him in creating, providing, giving life, or causing death—indeed, they themselves denied such a claim. Rather, they treated them as partners only in worship and divinity (uluhiyya). The Most High says: “Those who take protectors besides Him say, ‘We worship them only so that they may bring us nearer to Allah’” (39:3). Thus they conceded that Allah alone is the ultimate object, and that they worshipped their idols solely as intermediaries to bring them closer to Him. Muslim records in his Sahih (4/8)—and al-Diya al-Maqdisi in al-Mukhtara—on the authority of Ibn Abbas that the polytheists used to say while performing the talbiya: “Here we are at Your service; You have no partner.” The Messenger of Allah, peace be upon him, would respond, “Woe to you—enough, enough!” Yet they would continue: “Except a partner that is Yours; You own him and whatever he owns,” all the while circumambulating the Ka‘ba. The “worship” the polytheists dedicated to their patrons and idols consisted of assigning to them particular devotional acts—such as seeking their aid, making vows, or slaughtering animals for them—acts that signify ultimate humility and submission. They did so only because they believed these beings would draw them near to Allah and intercede for them with Him. Therefore Allah sent the messengers commanding the abandonment of every act of worship directed to anyone but Him, declaring the belief they held about these rivals to be false, that seeking nearness through them is false, and that such devotion belongs exclusively to Allah; this is tawhid al-ibada (monotheism in worship). Among those idolaters were some who worshipped angels and called upon them in times of distress, and others who worshipped statues representing certain righteous people and invoked them when afflicted. To all of them Allah sent Muhammad, peace and blessings be upon him,—