anything but a positive reality [that cannot be privative. Whatever requires only existence, rather than nonexistence, pertains more properly to that which has more perfect existence than to that whose existence is less perfect] (1). Therefore, the more perfect (2) a thing’s existence, the more deserving it is to be seen; and whatever cannot be seen is weaker in existence [than what can be seen] (3). Thus, dense bodies are more readily seen [than air (4), and light is more readily seen] than darkness, because light has a greater claim to existence, whereas darkness has a greater claim to nonexistence. That whose existence is necessary has the most perfect existence of all existents and is the furthest (5) of all things from nonexistence; it therefore has the greatest claim to be seen. We have not seen Him (6) only because our sight is incapable of seeing Him, not because seeing Him is impossible—just as sunlight is more readily seen than anything else.

For this reason, the Prophet—may Allah bless him and grant him peace—used it as an illustration of seeing Allah, saying:

“You will see your Lord just as you see the sun and the moon.”

He likened one act of seeing to the other, even though one object seen is not like the other. Yet when the eye stares directly into the sunlight (7), it becomes too weak to see it—not because of any impossibility inherent in the [very essence] (8) of the object seen, but because of the beholder’s incapacity. Thus, when the beholder is in