the method (1) brought by the Messenger—may Allah’s blessings and peace be upon him—and therefore it cannot be obligatory, nor can obligatory knowledge or faith [in his truthfulness] (2) depend upon it.

They said: (3)

Knowledge of the Maker and of the world’s temporal origination can each be established in many different ways.

[The Ways in Which Ahl al-Sunnah Establish Allah’s Existence]

As for establishing the Maker’s existence, the ways of doing so are innumerable. Indeed, the majority of scholars (4) hold that recognition of the Maker is innate and known by necessity, implanted (5) in the natural constitution (6). [For this reason, the call of the messengers generally was to worship Allah alone, without any partner. People in general acknowledged the Maker, even though they associated partners with Him by worshipping others besides Him. Those who professed to deny the Maker, such as Pharaoh, were addressed by the messengers as people who knew the truth of His existence, as in Moses’ words to Pharaoh:

“You certainly know that none sent these down as clear proofs except the Lord of the heavens and the earth.”

[Surah al-Isrā’: 102]

When Pharaoh said:

“And what is the Lord of the worlds?”

[Surah al-Shu‘arā’: 23]

Moses said to him:

“The Lord of the heavens and the earth and all that lies between them, if you are certain.” He said to those around him, “Do you not hear?” He said, “Your Lord and the Lord of your forefathers.” He said, “This messenger of yours, who has been sent to you, is surely mad.” He said, “The Lord of the east and the west and all that lies between them, if you would only reason.”

[Surah al-Shu‘arā’: 24–28].