that which is nonexistent cannot affect that which exists (1), and all of this is known. It has thus become clear that perfection is not impossible for Him. If it were possible for Him to possess it and possible for Him not to possess it, He could possess it only through another cause. The Necessary Existent would then depend upon another for His perfection, but the invalidity of this has also been established.

It has therefore become clear that perfection is inseparable from the Necessary Existent and necessary for Him, and that it is impossible to divest Him of perfection. Perfections are positive realities; negations cannot constitute perfection unless they entail positive realities, for pure nonexistence is nothing at all, much less a perfection. Indeed, whenever Allah—glorified is He—mentions His transcendence above imperfection and negates deficiencies from Himself, He does so in the context of affirming His attributes of perfection, as in His statement:

“Allah—there is no deity except Him—the Ever-Living, the Self-Sustaining Sustainer of all. Neither drowsiness nor sleep overtakes Him.”

[Surah al-Baqarah: 255]

The negation of drowsiness and sleep entails the perfection of His life and self-subsistence, both of which are attributes of perfection.

Likewise, He says:

“Not even an atom’s weight is hidden from Him in the heavens or on earth.”

[Surah Saba: 3]

The denial that this is hidden from Him entails His knowledge of it, and His knowledge of it is an attribute of perfection.

Likewise, He says:

“We certainly created the heavens and the earth and all that lies between them in six days, and no weariness touched Us.”

[Surah Qaf: 38]

His declaring Himself untouched by weariness necessarily implies the perfection of His power, and power is an attribute of perfection. Thus, His transcendence above such deficiencies entails the perfection of His life, self-subsistence, knowledge, and power. The same applies to analogous passages.

The Lord Most High is described by attributes of perfection beyond which there is no higher degree. For every ultimate degree that may be posited as a perfection must either be necessary for Him, possible for Him, or impossible for Him. And the two alternatives