the other one—this does not undermine his being capable. But if he is incapable unless the other helps him acquire power, or unless the other gives him free rein and does not prevent him from acting, then this does undermine his being capable on his own.

These meanings have been explained at length elsewhere. However, discussions of infinite regress and circularity are frequently raised in these difficult contexts relating to the proofs cited concerning Allah’s oneness, His attributes, and His acts. Moreover, many people fail to discern the established distinctions between matters that resemble one another. They may therefore regard a sound proof as unsound, regard as proof what is no proof at all, become perplexed and halt in uncertainty as the matter grows confused to them, hear lengthy and difficult discourse whose meaning they do not understand, or speak of matters whose true nature cannot be conceived. We have therefore drawn (1) brief attention to this here, for this is not (2) the place to expound it at length.

[The Errors into Which the Mu'tazilah and Shi'ah Fell Because They Believed That Infinite Regress Is of Only One Kind]

Because of this, people became embroiled in many issues. Those among the Mu'tazilah and Shi'ah [and others] (3) who maintained that the Quran is created and that Allah will not be seen in the Hereafter were led to this solely by their belief that infinite regress is of only one kind. Consequently, they committed themselves to the position that the Creator was not speaking (4) or acting by Himself until He originated speech separate from Himself, and they treated the creation of His speech like the creation of the heavens and the earth. When people challenged them on the ground that every originated event must have an originated cause, they resorted to obstinate denial and said:

“It is possible . . .”