and, under the influence of the polytheism of other nations, they devised partners for Allah. Indeed, those polytheists among the Greeks, Romans, and others used to prostrate themselves to the sun, the moon, and idols. The Christians therefore moved them (1) away from worshipping three-dimensional idols that cast shadows and toward worshipping images depicted in churches. They also introduced the innovation of praying toward the east, directing their prayers toward the place where the sun, moon, and stars appear. Thus, they replaced praying and prostrating to them with praying and prostrating in their direction.

The point is that, even after the Christians altered their religion, their revealed law and religion were still better than the religion of those Greeks who followed the philosophers (2). For this reason, the philosophers who encountered Islam would say:

“Muhammad’s revealed law—may Allah bless him and grant him peace—is superior to all other religious laws.”

They considered it superior to the religious laws (3) of the Christians, the Magians, and others. They therefore did not attack the religion of Muhammad—may Allah bless him and grant him peace—as did those philosophers who openly professed heresy. They saw that what those speculative theologians said about it contained teachings contrary to the plain dictates of reason (4), and on that basis they criticized them. They would say:

“No one who is fair, free of partisanship, and not led by personal desire would say what these people say concerning creation and resurrection.”

[The Philosophers’ Statements]

Those theologians also held corrupt views concerning the intellect, which they had received from their predecessors among the philosophers. (* They considered that (5) what the philosophers said concerning it contained things contrary to reason, and on that basis they criticized