a man of stern disposition and seek his assistance, so that his governance would be balanced and he could temper severity with gentleness. Gentleness alone leads to corruption, just as severity alone does, and he would thereby properly take the Prophet’s place—may Allah bless him and grant him peace. Thus, he would (1) avail himself of Umar’s counsel, appoint Khālid as his deputy, and take similar measures.

This was part of the consummate excellence by virtue of which he became the caliph of Allah’s Messenger—may Allah bless him and grant him peace. For this reason, he displayed such firmness in fighting the apostates that he surpassed Umar and others in this regard. It is even related that Umar said [to him] (2):

“O Caliph of Allah’s Messenger—may Allah bless him and grant him peace—seek to win the people over.”

He replied:

“On what grounds am I to win them over—by a fabricated report or by contrived poetry?”

Anas said:

“Abū Bakr addressed us immediately after the Prophet’s death—may Allah bless him and grant him peace—when we were like foxes. He continued to embolden us until we became like lions.”

As for Umar—may Allah be pleased with him—he was stern by nature. Part of his consummate excellence was therefore to enlist men of gentle disposition so that his governance would be balanced. Thus, he relied on Abū Ubayda ibn al-Jarrāh, Sad ibn Abī Waqqās, Abū Ubayd al-Thaqafī, al-Numān ibn Muqarrin, Saīd ibn Āmir, and other such men of righteousness and asceticism, whose asceticism and devotion surpassed those of men such as Khālid ibn al-Walīd [and others like him] (3).

The practice of consultation belongs to this same category. Umar ibn al-Khattāb—may Allah be pleased with him—frequently consulted the Companions on matters in which the command of Allah and His Messenger had not become clear to him. For the Lawgiver’s texts consist of comprehensive formulations, universal propositions, and general principles, and it is impossible for the Lawgiver to