worship there was a resemblance(1) to Christians. The ultimate outcome for the former is doubt and uncertainty, whereas for the latter it is ecstatic utterances and false claims. This is because the former denied the truth and thus fell into doubt, while the latter affirmed falsehood and were thereby led to ecstatic utterances. The former are like layers of darkness in a deep sea, [covered by waves, above which are waves, above which are clouds—layers of darkness, one above another](2), while the latter are like a mirage in a barren plain which a thirsty person supposes to be water, until, upon reaching it, he finds it to be nothing.

The innovators among the people of learning and speculative theology sought knowledge through what they had innovated. They did not follow the divinely prescribed knowledge and act upon it, and so they ended in doubt, which is contrary to knowledge, even though they had previously possessed knowledge of the divinely prescribed teachings. But they deviated, so Allah caused their hearts to deviate, and they incurred wrath.

The innovators among the worshippers(3) sought nearness to Allah through what they had introduced into worship, but they attained nothing except distance from Him. Indeed, the more an innovator exerts himself, the farther he grows from Allah Most High.

Distance from His mercy(4) is the curse, and that is the ultimate end of Christians. As for revealed laws, the Jews denied that the Creator could send a messenger with a law different from that of the first messenger. They said, “He may not abrogate what He has prescribed.” Christians, however, permitted their rabbis to alter the revealed laws with which Allah had sent His messenger(5). The former thus deemed the Creator incapable and denied Him what