—may Allah bless him and grant him peace—who had no equal in Quraysh, let alone among the rest of the Arabs [and non-Arabs] (1). Quraysh also included the Rightly Guided Caliphs, the remaining members of the Ten, and others whose equals were not to be found among either Arabs or non-Arabs. Among the Arabs, likewise, were members of the earliest forerunners who had no equals among any of the other ethnic groups.

The superior category must therefore contain those whose equals are not found in the less excellent category. Yet the less excellent category may contain individuals who are better than many of those found in the more excellent category. Thus, the prophets who were not Arabs are superior to Arabs who were not prophets. Pious believers from outside Quraysh are superior to those of Quraysh who do not equal them in faith and piety. Likewise, pious believers from Quraysh and elsewhere are superior to those of Banū Hāshim who do not equal them in faith and piety.

This is the sound governing principle in this matter, as opposed both to those who entirely deny any merit to lineage (2) and to those who imagine that Allah Most High regards a person as superior by virtue of his lineage to someone equal to him in faith and piety—let alone to someone greater in faith and piety. Both views are mistaken and stand at opposite extremes. Rather, merit based on lineage (3) belongs to the group as a whole and rests upon likelihood and causation, whereas merit based on faith and piety is individual, actual, and ultimate. The former is a basis for assigning superiority because it is a cause and an indicator, and because the group as a whole is superior to another group equal to it in number.

The latter is a basis for assigning superiority because it is the reality and the ultimate end (4), and because whoever is more mindful