of the Believers the Successor to Allah’s Messenger, even though he appointed him as his deputy on several occasions, including when he left him in charge of Medina during the expedition to Tabuk and said to him:

‘Medina cannot function properly without either me or you. Are you not content that you should be to me as Aaron was to Moses—except that there is no prophet after me?’

He also appointed Usāma ibn Zayd commander over the army that included Abū Bakr and Umar. He died without removing him from command, yet they did not call him a successor. When Abū Bakr assumed leadership, Usāma became angry and said, ‘Allah’s Messenger—peace and blessings be upon him—appointed me commander over you (1), so who appointed you successor over me?’ Abū Bakr and Umar therefore went to him on foot to appease him, and throughout his lifetime (2) they both called him ‘commander.’”

The response may be given from several angles:

First: The term “successor” may mean one who succeeds another, even if that person did not appoint him as his successor. This is the well-known linguistic meaning and the view of the majority.

Alternatively, it may mean someone whom another person appointed as his successor, as has been maintained (3) by a group among the literalists and the Shi'a [and others like them] (4). If the former (5) is intended, then Abū Bakr was the Successor to Allah’s Messenger—peace and blessings be upon him—because he succeeded him after his death. No one other than Abū Bakr succeeded Allah’s Messenger—peace and blessings be upon him—after his death. Thus, he was the Successor to the exclusion of