the heavens or on earth?’ Glory be to Him, and exalted is He above what they associate with Him.”

[Surah Yūnus: 18]

Those who affirm the existence of an independent agent other than Allah—such as the celestial sphere or human beings—and maintain that these newly occurring motions (1) are not created by Allah embody a degree of polytheism and denial not found among the Arab polytheists. The Arab polytheists acknowledged the divine decree and that Allah alone is the Creator of all things.

For this reason, He said in another verse:

“Say, ‘If there had been other gods alongside Him, as they say, they would surely have sought a way to the Lord of the Throne.’”

[Surah al-Isrā’: 42]

They used to say: “[They] (2) are means, intermediaries, and intercessors.” They did not (3) say, “They create as He creates.”

The Most High therefore said:

“If there had been other gods alongside Him, as they say, they would surely have sought a way to the Lord of the Throne,”

just as He said in another verse:

“Say, ‘Call upon those whom you claim besides Him. They have no power to remove harm from you or divert it.’ Those whom they invoke themselves seek a means of nearness to their Lord, each striving to be nearer; they hope for His mercy and fear His punishment. Surely your Lord’s punishment is one to be feared.”

[Surah al-Isrā’: 56–57]

It thus became clear that those invoked besides Him—among the angels, prophets, and others—are taken as a means (4) of access to Allah and of drawing near to Him. This is because He is the true God, the One worthy of worship. Every being apart from Him stands in need of Him because He is its Lord and it possesses nothing except from Him, and because He is its God, beyond whom its will has no ultimate end (5). If He (6) were not the One worshipped, there would be corruption throughout