of the two, when acting alone (1), was capable of doing something and of willing something contrary to what the other willed. If one willed the opposite of the other, then, if their powers were evenly matched, they would thwart one another and neither would accomplish anything; but if one were stronger, he would overpower the other. If (2), however, neither possessed any power when acting alone, he would acquire none when they joined together unless it came from a source outside them. Yet no instance of this is known to exist. Rather, what is known is that each possesses some measure of power when acting alone (3), which is brought to completion when they join together.

Moreover, when two agents share in an action and its effect (4), the action of each must be distinct from that of the other. One and the same thing (5) cannot be jointly performed by both (6), such that it could be said that this one did it and the other did it. That is impossible, as explained above.

If there were two Lords, what each one (7) created would be distinct from what the other created (8), as Allah Most High says:

“Then each god would have taken away what he created, and some of them would have sought to overcome others.”

[Surah al-Mu’minūn: 91]

Thus, Glorified is He, stated that the two effects must necessarily be distinct and that one must necessarily overpower the other, as explained above; yet both are impossible.

These and similar lines of reasoning are among those by which (9) the foremost rational thinkers (10) demonstrate the oneness of Lordship. They are sound rational arguments, but these later scholars failed to understand how properly to formulate and establish them.