with philosophy, just as error also became evident in the discourse of those who mixed Sufism with philosophy, such as the author of The Niche of Lights and The Books Withheld from Those Unworthy of Them (1), and other such works (2), which have been discussed (3) at length (4) elsewhere.

[Discussion of the Speculative Theologians’ Argument from Mutual Hindrance]

Indeed, these later speculative theologians could not even grasp their predecessors’ formulation of the proof of divine unity—namely, the argument from mutual hindrance—and found it problematic. Those predecessors believed that this [was the argument mentioned in the Quran in His saying, Exalted is He:

“Had there been gods besides Allah in the heavens and the earth, both would have fallen into ruin.”

This, however, was not] (5) the case. Rather, those predecessors fell short in understanding what is in the Quran, while these later theologians fell short in understanding the discourse (6) of those predecessors, who had themselves fallen short. When they fell short (7) in understanding what the Messenger—may Allah bless him and grant him peace— (8) had brought, they turned (9) to that which left them with doubt, bewilderment, and misguidance. This has been discussed at length elsewhere, but we shall draw attention (10) to it here.

The argument from mutual hindrance commonly advanced by the speculative theologians is as follows: if the universe had two creators, and one of them were to will something (11) while the other willed its opposite, as, for example, when