either assumption, the truth does [not] (1) lie outside what they hold. Indeed, disagreement over this principle may be found among the adherents of each of the four schools, even though they agree on affirming the caliphate of the [first three] caliphs (2), affirming divine decree, and affirming that Allah is the Creator of His servants’ acts. The disagreement among the followers (3) of Ahmad concerning this principle is well known. More than one of Ahmad’s followers and others—including Ibn Aqīl, the judge Abū Khāzim (4), and others—establish the evidentiary force of miracles on the grounds that the Lord is Wise and that His wisdom (5) does not permit Him to manifest miracles at the hands of a liar. Abū al-Khattāb (6) and others said likewise, as did the followers of Mālik and al-Shāfiī. Perhaps most of Abū Hanīfa’s followers also affirm that His acts are based on wisdom.

Second, it may be said: We do not concede (7) that the Messenger’s (8) truthfulness can be established only by inference from miracles. Rather, the means indicating (9) his truthfulness are multiple (10), apart from inference from miracles, as has [already] (11) been explained at length elsewhere. And anyone who