and rivers—so there is no harm in depicting them, for they contain no soul. Some scholars have argued that anything which grows, such as trees and crops, may not be depicted, basing themselves on the hadith: “Let them create a grain of wheat or a grain of barley.” Because these are living and growing, they said, they resemble beings that possess a soul. This, however, contradicts the position of the vast majority of scholars, and the correct view is that there is no objection to depicting them.

As for objects fashioned by human hands, there is no doubt that they may be photographed: palaces, automobiles, doors, and the like. Thus the categories may now be outlined as follows:

1. Whatever a person manufactures—there is no harm in photographing it, such as cars, palaces, doors, and similar items.

2. Whatever Allah has created that has no soul and does not grow—like the sun, the moon, the stars, mountains, and rocks—may likewise be photographed, and this is unanimously agreed upon.

3. Whatever Allah has created that lacks a soul yet does grow—such as trees and crops—the majority of scholars deem it permissible to depict, although a minority, among them the well-known Successor Mujāhid ibn Jabr, considered it forbidden. The sounder opinion is that there is no objection.

4. Anything that does possess a soul is not to be depicted at all, for the Prophet ﷺ cursed the image-makers.

As for the mere act of capturing a photograph, we do not regard it as “depiction” in the legal sense, because the photographer performs no act by which the image itself is formed. The only remaining issue is the purpose for which the picture is taken: if it serves a prohibited end, the ruling follows that end; if not, it remains permissible. Allah alone grants success.