—and a trait of sinfulness, a trait of integrity, a trait of hostility, and a trait of loyalty. In other words, a person is not necessarily a thoroughgoing disbeliever or a completely devoted believer; he may combine in himself qualities of disbelief while still being a believer, together with qualities of faith.

He then cited the ḥadīth of Jābir ibn ʿAbd Allāh (may Allah be pleased with him): the Prophet ﷺ said, “If the revenues of Bahrain arrive, I will give you this, and this, and this.” In that period “the revenues of Bahrain” referred to the income of al-Aḥsāʾ and its surrounding regions, all of which were then called Bahrain. The Prophet ﷺ repeated, “When it comes I will give you this, and this, and this,” gesturing with his blessed hands. This was a promise from the Messenger of Allah ﷺ to Jābir ibn ʿAbd Allāh that he would allot him a generous share of the Bahrain revenues.

The Prophet ﷺ passed away before that money reached Medina. After his death the Companions unanimously pledged allegiance to Abū Bakr al-Ṣiddīq (may Allah be pleased with him) as the caliph after the Messenger of Allah ﷺ. When the revenues of Bahrain finally arrived during Abū Bakr’s caliphate, he announced, “Whoever has with the Messenger of Allah ﷺ a pledge (ʿudda) or a debt, let him come to us.” A pledge (ʿudda) here means a promise, and a debt is an amount the Prophet ﷺ might have owed someone—for he could have purchased something that left him liable, or promised someone a gift. Indeed, the Prophet ﷺ died while his coat of armor was being held in pledge by a Jewish man.