– like the courtiers and aides of kings, for the king depends on them and therefore asks them for what he needs. If all such relationships are ruled out, what remains is nothing but a naked request and pure petition in which the one addressed has no need whatsoever of the petitioner or the would-be intercessor.

Every polytheist with respect to Allah falls into one of these categories. Some posit an independent agent besides Allah, though they do not regard that agent as equal to Him in essence, attributes, or actions. This is the case of the Magians, who from ancient times affirmed an Evil Principle that acts independently in bringing about evil, and likewise of those among them who held that this Evil Principle created evil. The qadariyyah of every nation likewise posit someone other than Allah who produces certain events on his own, even if they concede that Allah created that being. For this reason the early scholars said, “The qadariyyah are the Magians of this community.”

All who maintain that the universe is eternal are likewise compelled to affirm an agent other than Allah. Aristotle and his followers, for example, claim that the celestial sphere, through its motion, is the producer of all motions and whatever is generated from them. Those who then assign partners to it among the Intellects and Souls consider each partner independently responsible for bringing some event into existence. Others speak of an “efficient cause” resembling that, or of a being that “emanates” effects by its very essence. Both groups, in reality, deny that Allah has brought anything into being or created it.

Allah, exalted is He, has negated that anyone besides Him possesses dominion, or shares in dominion, or serves as His supporter. He alone is the Creator, Lord, and Sovereign of every thing. This is the doctrine of Ahl al-Sunnah, who affirm the divine decree and hold that Allah creates all things by His will and power. Yet the Salaf, the leading imams, and their followers also affirm the servant’s capacity and action, together with wisdom and causal means. Jahm ibn Ṣafwān and those theologians who followed him deny all of this, as has been explained elsewhere.

Explanation of the Almighty’s words, “…until, when the dread is lifted from their hearts…”: the Exalted affirms only intercession, but He affirms an intercession that is truly beneficial, not the futile kind…