Ibn Abī Ḥātim and others transmit—from Ibn Shawdhub, on the authority of Maṭar al-Warrāq—that he said:

“Allah sent down this verse about a certain Arab tribe that used to worship a tribe of the jinn.”

Muqātil, in his commentary, states: “The idolaters were worshipping the angels, saying, ‘They will intercede for us before Allah.’ When they were afflicted with a seven-year drought, it was said to them: Call upon those you have claimed.”

The verse, then, applies to every person who invokes anyone besides Allah, for the one so invoked is himself seeking a means (wasīlah) to Allah—that is, nearness and intimacy—hoping for His mercy and fearing His punishment. This encompasses angels, prophets, the righteous, whether human or jinn. Some have recited it as “Those whom you call upon,” which makes plain that the very beings the polytheists call upon are themselves drawing near to Allah, hoping in Him and fearing Him—so how can it be permissible to call upon them? The same idea appears in His words: “Do those who disbelieve think that they can take My servants as protectors apart from Me?” (18:102).

Here the Almighty has confined the possible classes of beings invoked besides Him and has negated every one of them, saying:

“Say: ‘Call upon those you claim besides Allah; they possess not even the weight of an atom in the heavens or on the earth, nor have they any share therein, nor has He any supporter among them. And no intercession is of any avail with Him except for one to whom He has granted permission.’” (34:22–23)

Thus the Exalted mentioned every conceivable category. A polytheist who calls upon, hopes in, and fears someone other than Allah must consider that being either an owner, a partner, a helper, or an intercessor. Likewise, anyone from whom a matter is sought is viewed in one of four ways: either he independently owns it; or he is a partner in it; or he is an assistant and supporter of the true Lord of the affair; or he is merely a supplicant and intercessor before that Lord. Once all these possibilities are negated, seeking deliverance (istighāthah) from such a being is impossible.

For this reason, people in their dealings with one another—kings and subjects alike—when they make requests do not step outside these same categories. Either each has a domain separate from the other, so one asks this person for what lies in his domain and that person for what lies in his; or one is a partner to the other and is asked as a partner; or one is among the other’s aides, supporters, and backers.