a body; then he continues, “Every animal is a body, and every body is a substance; therefore every human being is an animal,” and from the two conclusions it follows that every human being is a substance.
They may be answered as follows: that the sought-after proposition is limited to two parts applies only to the way it is uttered, whereas in the mind what is sought is in fact one thing, not two—namely, the affirmation or denial of the judicative nexus. If you prefer, call it the attribution of an attribute to that which is described, either positively or negatively; or, if you will, the relating of predicate to subject, or of report to topic, in affirmation or negation. All such phrases convey the single meaning intended by the proposition.
Thus, when the desired conclusion is “Date-wine is forbidden” or “is not forbidden,” or “Man is sentient” or “is not sentient,” and the like, what is really being requested is the affirmation or denial of prohibition with respect to date-wine, or the affirmation or denial of sentience with respect to man. A single premise that accords with that demand is enough to obtain the goal. Our statement, “Date-wine is wine,” satisfies the requirement, as does our statement, “Man is an animal.”
Suppose a person knows that every wine is unlawful, yet hesitates about the disputed beverage nabidh—whether, in the Lawgiver’s usage, it is called wine. If it is said, “Nabidh is unlawful, because it has been authentically reported that the Prophet—peace and blessings be upon him—said, ‘Every intoxicant is unlawful,’” then this proposition—namely, our statement that the Prophet (peace be upon him) said, “Every intoxicant is wine”—establishes the prohibition of nabidh, even though the Prophet’s own wording contains an additional proposition.
Arguing in this fashion, however, presupposes premises already known to the listener: that whatever the specialists in ḥadith have judged authentic must be believed to have been spoken by the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him); that whatever the Messenger declares forbidden is indeed forbidden; and the like.
If one were obliged to state every proposition upon which knowledge depends—even when it is already known—the premises would exceed two and might surpass ten. According to their theory, therefore, everyone who sets out to argue