according to many of them, or most of the early generations. By contrast, none of the leading scholars holds that a person is to be executed for committing a prohibited act whose harm does not extend beyond himself. Nor does such an act render him a disbeliever unless it contradicts faith, in which case this is because he has lost his faith and become an apostate or a zindīq.

Some leading scholars hold that a person is to be executed and deemed a disbeliever for abandoning any one of the five pillars, because Islam is built upon them. This is the view of a group of the early generations and one position reported from Ahmad, adopted by some of his followers.

Others hold that he is neither to be executed nor deemed a disbeliever except for abandoning prayer and zakat. This is another position reported from Ahmad, supported by the apparent meaning of the Quran in Surah Barā’ah and the hadith of Ibn ‘Umar and others. Moreover, prayer and zakat together encompass the rights of Allah and the rights of His creation, just as the two testimonies of faith encompass lordship and messengership. Neither prayer nor zakat can be replaced by something of a different kind, unlike fasting and pilgrimage.

Others hold that he is to be executed for abandoning either prayer or zakat, and deemed a disbeliever for abandoning prayer, or for withholding zakat if he fights the ruler over it. This is one position reported from Ahmad.

Others hold that he is to be executed for abandoning either, but deemed a disbeliever only for abandoning prayer. This is one position reported from Ahmad.

Others hold that he is to be executed for abandoning either, but is not deemed a disbeliever. This is one position reported from Ahmad.

Still others