Thus, every act of worship and every other prescribed act, whether obligatory or recommended, and every prohibited or discouraged act falls into one of three categories: those grounded in reason, those common to revealed religions, and those specific to a revealed law.

By “grounded in reason” is meant whatever rational people among humankind agree upon, whether or not they have any connection with a revealed scripture. By “common to revealed religions” is meant whatever the adherents of revealed religions and scriptures, and their followers, agree upon. By “specific to a revealed law” is meant whatever is particular to the followers of the Quranic law, namely the community of Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace.

More particular still is whatever distinguishes the adherents of a particular school or path among jurists, Sufis, and others. Yet the Messenger’s law does not require such particularity and differentiation unconditionally. It may require them insofar as seeking religious rulings from, or obeying, particular scholars, worshippers, or rulers may be obligatory. Thus, those participating in a military expedition must obey their commander, and the inhabitants of a village must seek religious rulings from their scholar when they can find no other, and so forth.

Every non-Muslim community that follows a religious law likewise has these three categories within its law: its commands and prohibitions encompass matters upon which rational people agree and matters upon which the prophets agree.

As for royal systems of governance that adhere to neither a religion nor a scripture, they must include the first and third categories. What is common to all human beings must be enjoined under every system of governance and leadership. Likewise, every king must have some distinguishing characteristic, even if it consists only in