and the Sunnah. Thus, among them are both adherents of the Sunnah and followers of innovation. They share with the philosophers the investigation of universal matters: knowledge, evidence, reasoning, existence, nonexistence, and objects of knowledge. However, they specialize more than the philosophers in investigating divine matters, and their knowledge and exposition of these matters are more extensive, although the philosophers share some of this inquiry. Likewise, the philosophers specialize more in investigating natural matters, although speculative theologians share some of that inquiry.

The category specific to revealed law concerns what is studied by those who follow the Book and the Sunnah. They either uphold only the outward aspect of asraʿ, as do the generality of hadith scholars and believers, whose standing in knowledge corresponds to that of outwardly observant worshippers in worship; or they understand its meanings and possess insight into it. In knowledge, the latter resemble those endowed with spiritual insight among the Sufis who adhere to revealed law. These are the scholars of Muhammad’s community in its pure form. They are the best and most complete of creation, and the most upright in their way. Allah knows best.

Listening is also included among acts of worship, and it falls into three categories: rational, religious, and specific to revealed law.

The first is whatever stirs love, fear, sorrow, or hope in general. The second is what is found among others, such as love of Allah, fear of Him, hope in Him, awe of Him, reliance upon Him, and the like.