this occurs within the revealed Law; for once someone knows that the one conveying it is truthful, he can learn through his reports everything he needs to know. Undoubtedly, many people acquire such knowledge only through what the Lawgiver communicates, and they have done well to believe him. But does such a case actually occur at all? Many philosophers, speculative theologians, jurists, Sufis, laypeople, and others have held that it does: among the matters communicated by the Lawgiver are things that can also be known through reason, even if the Lawgiver has not mentioned their rational proof. This calls for scrutiny.

For someone who reflects on the various ways in which the Quran and Sunnah provide evidence—whether clear or subtle, outward or inward—may say that, concerning everything knowable through reason, the Lawgiver has drawn attention to a rational proof, just as it is agreed that He has done so concerning the major questions of the foundations of religion. This too calls for scrutiny.

From this perspective, knowledge thus falls into the following categories:

It may be known through revelation alone: this is what is known solely through revelation’s communication, concerning matters to which reason can find no way whatsoever. Such matters may, however, be known through reports other than those of our Lawgiver Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace.

Or it may be known through reason alone, such as the transmitted teachings of medicine, arithmetic, and the crafts.

Or it may be known through both. In this case, either the Lawgiver has guided people to its proof as well as communicated it, or He has not. In the former case, these are the rational truths within revealed teachings, or the rational teaching of the