without that belief having any effect. Thus, if someone believed that bread and meat were not filling, that belief would make no difference: they would still be filling even if he believed otherwise.

Section

The legal positions of the imams are established from their statements.

As for their actions, our fellow scholars hold two views on whether Imam Ahmad’s legal position may be inferred from his actions.

The first is that it may not, because he could commit a sin, act contrary to his own belief, or act inadvertently, out of habit, in deference to another’s judgment, or for some reason other than the conviction on which he bases his legal rulings. For a person to act upon his knowledge in every situation, and to act only upon knowledge that can serve as the basis for a legal ruling in each situation, he must have a considered view on the matter, recall it, and intend to act upon it without anything diverting him. For, given the ability to act, action depends upon motivation, and motivation consists of awareness and the heart’s inclination.

The second is that his legal position may indeed be inferred from his actions, given what is known of Abū ʿAbd Allāh’s piety, scrupulousness, and renunciation of worldly pleasures. He was among those least likely to sin deliberately. Although we do not claim that he was infallible, the apparent and usual case is that his actions accorded with his knowledge. Thus, what he did may presumptively be taken to represent his legal position. The same applies to anyone whose predominant quality is piety