attributing it to His decree and affirming that He is its Creator, contrary to the Qadariyyah. Yet complete understanding requires affirming and knowing the causes.

As for the Qadariyyah among the Muʿtazilah and others, they based their account on their principle that everything resulting from a servant’s action is itself his action and is not attributed to anyone else—such as becoming satiated, having one’s thirst quenched, the departure of the soul, and similar effects. They therefore said: “This knowledge results from the servant’s reflection or his recollection of that reflection.”

The philosophers based their account on their principle that forms arise through emanation from the active intellect when the receptive matter is suitably prepared. They therefore said: “It arises in human souls through emanation from the active intellect when the soul is prepared by bringing the two premises to mind.” This position is erroneous. The preceding position is closer to the truth, and the first is closer still. Yet none of them accurately explains the matter.

The reality is that Allah has assigned to human beings angels and devils that cast good and evil into their hearts. True knowledge is good, while false beliefs are evil. As Ibn Masʿūd said:

“The angel’s prompting affirms the truth, while Satan’s prompting denies the truth.”

Likewise, the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said concerning the judge:

“Allah sent down to him an angel to guide him aright.”

Likewise, Allah has informed us that angels impart inspiration to human beings, even though human beings are unaware that it comes from an angel, just as they are unaware of the whispering devil.