is an act of worship. This stems from his limited knowledge of Islam. Had he known the religion of Islam, he would have known that what he has done is not worship of Allah, and that anyone who regards this as lawful is an apostate who must be put to death. Indeed, Muslims agree that one must enter the state of pilgrimage consecration at the prescribed boundary point, and that someone in that state may not wear such clothing without a valid excuse. Standing at ‘Arafāt alone is not sufficient; the pilgrimage circumambulation is indispensable, by the agreement of the Muslims. He must also proceed to the Sacred Monument and stone Jamrat al-‘Aqabah. There is disagreement over whether this is an essential pillar or an obligation whose omission can be compensated for by a sacrificial offering. He must also stone the pillars during the days at Minā, by the agreement of the Muslims.

The jinn may carry one of these people to visit Jerusalem or elsewhere, fly with him through the air, and walk with him through water. They may make him see that he has been taken to the city of the friends of Allah, and may even make him see himself eating the fruits of Paradise and drinking from its rivers. All this, and similar things, I know to have happened to people I know. But this is an extensive subject, and this is not the place to discuss it at length.

The point is simply that polytheism in the world originated in the worship of righteous human beings and their images, with those people being the intended objects of worship. Some forms of polytheism originated in the worship of heavenly bodies—the sun, the moon, or others—and idols were fashioned as talismans for those heavenly bodies. The polytheism of Abraham’s people—and Allah knows best—was of this kind, or some of it was. Other forms of polytheism originated in the worship of angels or jinn, for whom idols were erected. Otherwise, the idols themselves