unlike those who assign this expression ten-odd meanings, as mentioned by Ibn ‘Arabī al-Ma‘āfirī.

This is clarified by the circumstances in which this verse was revealed: the arrival of the Christians of Najrān and their debate with the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, concerning the Messiah, as related by Quran commentators and biographers. It is widely known—indeed, established by mass transmission—that the Christians of Najrān came to the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, and he challenged them to the mutual invocation of Allah’s curse mentioned in Surah Āl ‘Imrān. They agreed to pay the jizyah but did not accept that challenge. The opening of Āl ‘Imrān was revealed because of these events; hence most of it concerns the Messiah.

They relate that these Christians cited such Quranic expressions as “that We” and “We” as evidence that there are three gods. Thus they followed what was ambiguous and abandoned the Quran’s unambiguous declaration that God is One:

“Seeking discord and seeking an interpretation of it.”

Their purpose was to cause discord—that is, to lead hearts into disbelief—and to seek the ultimate reality signified by the expressions “Indeed, We” and “We.” Only Allah knows the ultimate reality denoted by these expressions, for they are used only of a single individual who has helpers, whether these are his partners or servants whom he owns.

This is why these expressions admit ambiguity. Someone who has partners says, “We have done such-and-such, and We indeed do such-and-such.” This is impossible in the case of Allah Most High. Someone who has servants whom he owns and subjects who obey him—such as a king—says, “We have done such-and-such,” meaning, “I