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Sūrat al-Ikhlās has been invoked as evidence by two groups among the proponents of innovated speculative theology: those who say that the Lord Most High is a body, such as some who agreed with Hishām ibn al-Hakam, Muhammad ibn Karrām, and others; and those who deny this and say that He is not a body, among those who agreed with Jahm ibn Safwān, Abū al-Hudhayl al-‘Allāf, and others like them.

The former argued: “He is al-Samad, and al-Samad has no internal cavity. This applies only to solid bodies, which have no internal cavity, such as mountains, rocks, and columns made of stone. Likewise, it has been said: ‘The angels are solid.’ For this reason, it has been said that nothing comes out of Him or enters Him, that He neither eats nor drinks, and so forth. Denying these things is conceivable only with regard to something that is a body.”

They also said: “The root meaning of samad is gathering together, as in the expression tasmīd al-māl (amassing wealth). This can be conceived only in a body formed by aggregation.”

As for those who deny that He is a body, they argued: “Al-Samad is the One for whom separation and division are impossible, whereas every body in the world is capable of separation and division.”

They also said: “Al-Ahad (the One) does not admit of partition or division, whereas every body in the world is capable of separation, partition, and division.”

They further said: