many speculative theologians share the majority view that these are multiple, and that those who maintain that He wills everything He wills through a single will merely adopted this view from Ibn Kullāb. Most rational people consider its invalidity self-evident. Indeed, some distinguished scholars of rational inquiry deny that any rational person could hold such a view, because they find it so plainly contrary to reason, unaware that a group of speculative thinkers have maintained it.

Likewise, according to someone who identifies His will itself with both His mercy and His anger, the Prophet’s saying—may Allah bless him and grant him peace—

“I seek refuge in Your pleasure from Your wrath”

would mean seeking refuge in will itself from will itself. This is impossible, for, in his view, will has no positive attribute by virtue of which refuge could be sought in it in one respect and from it in another. Rather, in his view, will merely has a relation to created beings, and that relation has no real existence. This differs from seeking refuge in Him from Him, for He, glorified be He, possesses diverse attributes: refuge is therefore sought in Him in one respect and from Him in another.

As for anyone who says that He is an essence without attributes, or an absolute existent possessing no positive attribute, such a thing cannot exist in external reality. It can only be conceived in the mind, just as impossibilities can be conceived—let alone be a Lord and Creator of creatures—as has been explained at length in its proper place.

These people were driven to such positions by the pressure that the Jahmiyyah and Muʿtazilah brought to bear on them concerning the attributes. They began saying to them:

“Is Allah’s speech Allah Himself or other than Allah? If you say that it is other than Him, then whatever is other than Allah is created. But if you say that it is