in the best possible manner, and explained most clearly the signs pointing to the Creator—glory be to Him—His most beautiful names, His sublime attributes, and His oneness, as has been discussed at length elsewhere.

As for the innovators among the speculative theologians, philosophers, and others like them, they did not establish the truth. Rather, they laid down principles that contradict it. They not only failed to find guidance themselves or direct others to the truth; they also established principles contrary to the truth. Recognizing that these principles contradicted what the Messenger, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, had brought, they gave them precedence over his message.

At times they say, “The Messenger brought imaginative representations”; at others, “He brought teachings requiring figurative interpretation”; and at others, “He brought teachings that leave people in ignorance.”

The philosophers and those who agree with them sometimes say: “He addressed the general public through imaginative representations. He did not intend to tell them things as they really were; rather, he told them the opposite, so that they would imagine what would benefit them.”

This is the position of those who acknowledge that he knew the truth, such as Ibn Sīnā and his like. They say: “What he accomplished through imaginative representations was the utmost that could be achieved.”

Others among them say: “He did not know the truth; rather, he imagined things and made others imagine them,” as al-Fārābī and his like maintain. They regard the philosopher as superior to the prophet and consider prophethood to be a kind of dreaming.