“Then Bishr established himself over Iraq … without a sword or blood being shed.”

He explained that, even if authentic, this verse would provide no evidence. For they did not say, “Umar established himself over Iraq” when he conquered it, nor “Uthmān established himself over Khurāsān,” nor “The Messenger of Allah, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, established himself over Yemen.” Rather, this verse—if authentic—was said about Bishr ibn Marwān when he entered Iraq and established himself upon its royal throne. This expression was used just as one says, “He sat on the royal throne,” or “under royal authority.” One also says, “He took his seat as king,” intending this meaning.

Moreover, numerous Quranic verses and hadiths, together with the consensus of the early generations, indicate that Allah is above the Throne, as has been explained at length elsewhere.

As for those who say that establishment is an attribute of action, they hold two views here, corresponding to the distinction discussed earlier: Is it an act separate from Him, because “act” means the result of the act, or an act subsisting in Him that occurs through His will and power? The first is the view of Ibn Kullāb and those who followed him, such as al-Ashʿarī and others. It is also the view of al-Qādī, Ibn ʿAqīl, Ibn al-Zāghūnī, and others.