and followed arguments of their own devising which they thought rational, though they were based on ignorance. Thus they erred concerning both revelatory and rational proofs and fell into disagreement:

“Indeed, those who differ over the Scripture are in extreme dissension.”

This has been discussed at length elsewhere in connection with divine speech and actions, citing such statements of the early generations and leading scholars on this fundamental issue as were readily available. The purpose here is to draw attention to the grounds underlying these positions.

This point was clarified by the leading authorities of the Sunnah, such as Imam Ahmad and others. In his Refutation of the Jahmiyyah, he discussed Allah’s words:

“Indeed, We have made it an Arabic Quran.”

He explained that Allah’s “making” may mean “creating,” as in His words:

“and made darkness and light,”

or it may mean “an act that is not creation.” His words, “Indeed, We have made it an Arabic Quran,” belong to this latter category. For creation, and comparable acts that are not creation—such as His speaking the Quran and other words, His speaking to Moses and others, and His descending, coming, arriving, and the like—all take place through His power and will, and through other acts that subsist in His essence and are not acts of creation.

This is how al-Bukhārī and other leading authorities of the Sunnah answer the Karrāmiyyah when they ask, “Must not whatever is brought into being have an act of bringing it into being?” He replies, “Yes, and that act of bringing into being