on the basis of self-evident knowledge of this, or because their failure to demonstrate it would imply incapacity. Yet they demonstrate it only if the agent intends to manifest them as proof of the prophets’ truthfulness. Thus, when they say that He does nothing for any purpose, they contradict themselves.

Another method of establishing the attributes is to infer the cause from its effect: whoever produces something perfect has a greater claim to perfection. The third method is a fortiori reasoning, based on precedence and superiority: if perfection is established for a contingent, created being that has come into existence, then the necessarily existent, eternal Creator has a greater claim to it. The Quran employs all three methods.

An example of inferring from an effect the greater perfection of its cause is His statement, Most High:

“They said, ‘Who is greater than us in strength?’”

Allah, Most High, said:

“Did they not see that Allah, who created them, is greater than them in strength?”

Likewise, all the strength and might found in created beings indicate that Allah is greater in strength and might. Whatever knowledge they possess indicates that Allah is more knowledgeable, and whatever knowledge and life they possess indicate that Allah has a greater claim to knowledge and life.