who possesses power, and the Ever-Living, who possesses life, who has eternally been unique in possessing these attributes. He resembles nothing, and nothing resembles Him.

(I say:

This statement agrees with what al-Ashʿarī mentioned in his book al-Ibānah and with what Ibn Kullāb stated, as reported by Ibn Fūrak. However, Ibn Kullāb says that being above and separate are attributes known through reason. These others, by contrast, say that His being in heaven is an attribute known through revelation, like His coming and approaching. They state without qualification that He Himself is above the Throne, and regard this as an attribute of His essence.

Al-Ashʿarī refutes those who interpret istiwā—being established above—as dominion and subjugation, arguing that He has always held dominion over the Throne and everything else, whereas istiwā applies specifically to the Throne. If it meant dominion, it would be permissible to say, “He is established above everything, including the earth and other things,” just as one says, “He holds dominion over them.” Since Muslims agree that istiwā applies specifically to the Throne, this particular istiwā cannot mean universal dominion. And what authority is there for interpreting istiwā as subjugation and supremacy, which amount to dominion?

It therefore seems—and Allah knows best—that his conclusions on these questions varied, just as those of others did. Abū al-Maʿālī used to advocate figurative interpretation, then prohibited it and reported the early generations’ consensus that it was prohibited. Ibn ʿAqīl held differing views, and likewise