and gives for Allah’s sake and withholds for Allah’s sake has perfected his faith.”

Love and hatred are thus the foundation. Giving springs from love and constitutes generosity, while withholding springs from hatred and constitutes stinginess.

As for anger, it may be said to be a particular form of hatred: the intensity that arises within the soul, accompanied by the boiling of the heart’s blood in pursuit of vengeance. This is anger in its specific sense. For this reason, some speculative theologians contrast appetite with aversion rather than with anger. Whoever contrasts appetite with anger must not mean anger in this specific sense, for its relation to aversion is like that of covetousness to appetite. Anger in its general sense, however, is the faculty that repels through hatred, as opposed to the faculty that attracts through love.

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Performing what is commanded springs from the volitional faculty of love and appetite, while refraining from what is forbidden springs from the faculty of dislike, hatred, anger, and aversion. Enjoining what is right springs from love and will, while forbidding what is wrong springs from hatred and dislike. The same applies to encouraging what is right and warning against what is wrong, urging the former and restraining from the latter. Hence, souls are restrained from wrongdoing only through the repelling faculty of anger. Through this, justice and equity are established in judgment and distribution