—neither in the one sense nor in the other. For, by the consensus of the Muslims, He has not permitted such acts. In their view, He neither willed nor created them; rather, they occurred without His will or creation.

The polytheists who acknowledge divine decree say that intercessors intercede by permission pertaining to His decree, even if He has not authorized or permitted them to do so. Those who deny divine decree—such as many Christians—say that intercessors intercede without permission, whether pertaining to His decree or His revealed law.

The Qadariyyah among the Muslims say that intercessors intercede without permission pertaining to His decree. Whoever petitions Allah without His permission under His revealed law has thus interceded with Him without permission pertaining either to His decree or to His revealed law.

Thus, in their view, a supplicant authorized to supplicate exerts an influence upon Allah, but with His authorization. As for an unauthorized supplicant, if Allah answers his supplication, then, in their view, he has influenced Him without either kind of permission—as in the supplication of Balʿām ibn Bāʿūrāʾ and others. Yet Allah Most High says:

“Who can intercede with Him except by His permission?”

If it is said, “Some intercessors intercede without Allah’s permission under His revealed law, even though