that the term qiyās should apply only to those universal propositions, and that this is valid inference.

The correct view is the linguistic usage of the early generations, which accords with the Quran, as I shall explain: both are forms of inference, comparison, and reasoning by correspondence. This is evident in analogical inference. As for inference by taklīl and universal inclusion, each individual case is measured against that universal standard established in knowledge and discourse, which serves as its basis, just as a particular case is measured against a comparable original case. In both, the basis is the likeness, and inference consists in drawing a likeness.

The underlying meaning of this expression—Allah knows best—is determining a measure. Thus, setting out a likeness for something means determining a counterpart for it, just as inference originally means measuring one thing against another. Related usages include striking a dirham, which determines its measure, and imposing the poll tax and land tax, which determines their amounts. A darība is an assessed levy. The expression darb fī al-ard means travelling through the land, because the extent of the walker’s track corresponds to the extent of his movement. Likewise, striking with a stick determines the pain by means of the instrument.

Darb involves gathering, combining, and determining a measure, just as darība denotes money collected together. Darība also means a person’s constitution. Striking a dirham means bringing silver together into a combined, measured form. Imposing the poll tax and land tax means prescribing and assessing them over successive years. Travelling through the land consists of measured movements brought together to reach a definite destination. Another related usage is quilting a padded garment: drawing together its interstices in successive rows.

For this reason, logicians call a syllogistic form a darb, just as a single kind is called a darb because its members belong together and agree with one another. And since drawing a likeness brings together two items of knowledge from which knowledge is sought