their discourse without most people realizing it, as with the author of al-Kashshāf and others like him. He thus manages to pass off as much as Allah wills of their false interpretations on many who do not themselves subscribe to falsehood. I have seen scholars, Quran commentators and others, include in their writings and discourse interpretations of theirs that accord with principles they know or believe to be false, without recognizing the connection.

Then, because of these people’s extremism and misguidance, the Imāmī Rāfidah, followed by the philosophers, the Qarmatians, and others, ventured into interpretations even more extreme. Matters grew still worse among the philosophers, the Qarmatians, and the Rāfidah: they interpreted the Quran in ways that never cease to astonish a knowledgeable person. Examples of the Rāfidah’s interpretations include their claims that:

“May the hands of Abu Lahab perish” refers to Abū Bakr and ʿUmar;

“If you associate others with Allah, your deeds will surely come to nothing” means associating Abū Bakr with ʿAlī in the caliphate;

“Allah commands you to slaughter a cow” refers to ʿĀ’ishah;

“Fight the leaders of disbelief” refers to Talhah and al-Zubayr;

“He released the two seas” refers to ʿAlī and Fātimah;

“Pearls and coral” refers to al-Hasan and al-Husayn;

“We have recorded everything in a clear register” means in ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib;

“What are they asking one another about?” “About the momentous news” refers to ʿAlī ibn Abī Tālib;

“Your only allies are Allah, His Messenger, and those who believe, who establish prayer and give zakah while bowing” refers to ʿAlī. They cite the report that he gave his ring in charity during prayer—a report that the scholars unanimously agree is fabricated.

Likewise, they claim that His words, “Upon them are blessings from their Lord, and mercy,” were revealed concerning ʿAlī when he was bereaved by Hamzah’s death.