which the philosophers claim is the first originator; that the stars, moon, and sun which Abraham saw are the Soul, the Intellect, and the Necessary Existent; that the four rivers which the Prophet, peace and blessings be upon him, saw on the night of his Ascension are the four elements; and that the prophets he saw in heaven are the celestial bodies. Thus, Adam is the moon, Joseph is Venus, and Idrīs is the sun—and other such notions.

Many speculative theologians and Sufis have adopted many of these people’s teachings. However, those Qarmatians outwardly profess Rāfidism, while inwardly harbouring sheer unbelief. Most Sufis and speculative theologians are not Rāfidīs who denounce the Companions as sinners or unbelievers. Among them, however, are those who, like the Zaydīs, regard ‘Alī as superior to Abū Bakr. Others regard ‘Alī as superior in inward knowledge, following the approach of al-Harbī and others like him. They claim that ‘Alī had greater inward knowledge, that this knowledge is superior in that respect, and that Abū Bakr had greater outward knowledge.

Their position is the opposite of that held by the discerning scholars and leading authorities among the Sufis, who agree that the person most knowledgeable in inward knowledge is Abū Bakr al-Siddīq. Ahl al-Sunnah wa-l-Jamā‘ah have agreed that Abū Bakr is the most knowledgeable member of this nation in both inward and outward matters, and more than one scholar has reported consensus on this.

These esotericists may interpret:

“And We have recorded all things in a clear register”

as referring to ‘Alī. They interpret the Most High’s words:

“May the hands of Abū Lahab perish, and may he perish!”

as identifying the two hands with Abū Bakr and ‘Umar, and His words:

“Then fight the leaders of disbelief”

as referring to Talha and al-Zubayr