and form as conceived by the philosophical thinkers, or something close to this, as maintained by Ibn Sabʿīn and others like him. Their views contain contradictions and errors, and amount to the unity of existence and divine indwelling or union. They affirm unrestricted divine indwelling, unrestricted unity, and unrestricted union, unlike those who affirm these concerning particular individuals, such as the Christians and the extremists (among the Shīʿa who claim divinity for ʿAlī, al-Hākim, al-Hallāj, Yūnus al-Qunīnī, or others for whom divinity has been claimed.

The latter may affirm a restricted, particular divine indwelling, whereas the former affirm it without restriction and universally. Hence they say that the Christians’ error lay only in confining it to a particular individual. Likewise, they say that the error of the polytheists who worship idols lay only in limiting themselves to some manifestations to the exclusion of others. They permit polytheism and idol worship without restriction, on an unrestricted and universal basis.

There is no doubt that the unbelief and misguidance contained in these people’s views exceed the unbelief of the Jews and Christians. This doctrine is widespread among many later thinkers, and groups among the Jahmiyya also professed it. The writings of Ibn ʿArabī in Fusūs al-Hikam (The Bezels of Wisdom) and elsewhere, and the writings of Ibn Sabʿīn