and brought each person, as far as possible, to a better state than before.

“For all there are ranks according to what they have done, so that He may repay them in full for their deeds, and they will not be wronged.”

Most speculative theologians refute falsehood with falsehood and religious innovation with religious innovation. Yet they may refute the falsehood of unbelievers—polytheists and People of the Book—with falsehood held by Muslims, so that an unbeliever becomes a Muslim who adheres to religious innovation. More specifically, some of them refute manifest innovations, such as that of the Rāfidah, with a lesser innovation—namely, that of adherents of the Sunnah. We have already discussed the various categories of religious innovation.

There is no doubt that the Mu‘tazilah are better than the Rāfidah and the Khawārij. The Mu‘tazilah acknowledge the caliphate of all four caliphs, and all of them profess allegiance to Abū Bakr, ‘Umar, and ‘Uthmān. They are likewise known to profess allegiance to ‘Alī, and some prefer him to Abū Bakr and ‘Umar. However, one of their early figures is reported to have said:

“One of the two parties at the Battle of the Camel was guilty of grave sin, but I do not know which.”

They also reported that he said:

“If ‘Alī and al-Zubayr were to testify, I would not accept their testimony, because one of them was guilty of grave sin, though it is not known which.”

If ‘Alī were to testify alongside another man, there are two views concerning the acceptance of his testimony. This position is exceptional among them; the overwhelming majority hold ‘Alī in great esteem. They are well known for censuring Mu‘āwiyah, Abū Mūsā, and ‘Amr ibn al-‘Ās on account of ‘Alī. Some of them declare these men unbelievers and evildoers, unlike Talhah and al-Zubayr