the minor premise. Establishing the major premise is possible only through evidence yielding probability. The very evidence that establishes the universality of the proposition also establishes the determining effect of the shared attribute; there is no difference whatsoever between the two.

In matters concerning Allah, both forms of reasoning may be used only as a fortiori arguments. This is the “method” employed by the Quran and followed by the early generations of the Muslim community and its leading scholars. For nothing that exists is comparable to Allah—glorified is He—in “analogical reasoning,” nor can He be included in “syllogistic reasoning” whose individual instances are on an equal footing. Rather, whatever perfection is established for others, involving no deficiency whatsoever, He is all the more entitled to possess; and whatever imperfections others are declared free of, He is all the more entitled to be declared free of. As the Most High says:

“To those who do not believe in the Hereafter belong evil attributes, while to Allah belong the highest attributes.”

And the Most High says:

“He presents to you an example from yourselves: do you have, among those whom your right hands possess, any partners in what We have provided for you, so that you share equally in it, fearing them as you fear one another?”

We have discussed this at length elsewhere and explained that, in most matters, what is learned through “syllogistic reasoning” may be learned without it. Thus, the judgments concerning the particulars included in the syllogism can be known without knowing the judgment expressed by the universal proposition. For example, it is said: “The whole is greater than the part,” and “Two contraries cannot coexist.” Yet, for any particular whole and any particular pair of contraries, once it is known that one thing is part of another and that one thing is contrary to another, it is known that the whole is greater than its part and that the two contraries cannot coexist