are confused in both their knowledge and their practice. Their confusion in knowledge is distinct from their own and others’ confusion in intention; likewise, their confusion in intention is distinct from their own and others’ confusion in knowledge. For whoever acts upon what he knows, Allah grants him knowledge of what he did not know.

“Good intent” is among the greatest aids to acquiring and grasping knowledge. “Knowledge of revealed law” is among the greatest aids to good intent and righteous action. Knowledge leads from the front, while action drives from behind, and the soul is an obstinate mount. If its leader falters, it will not keep to its course at its driver’s urging; and if its driver falters, it will not keep to its course under its leader’s guidance.

When knowledge grows weak, the traveller becomes bewildered and does not know which way to go; all he can do is abandon himself to divine decree. When he abandons action, he loses his way and follows another path, despite knowing that he has left the right one. The former is bewildered, not knowing which way to go despite travelling extensively; the latter has lost his way and deviated from the path despite knowing it.

Allah Most High says:

“When they deviated, Allah caused their hearts to deviate.”

The former is ignorant, and the latter is a wrongdoer. Allah Most High says:

“And man undertook it; indeed, he was unjust and ignorant.”

Ignorance and wrongdoing are nevertheless closely related. Yet the ignorant person does not know that he is a wrongdoer, while the wrongdoer is ignorant of the reality that bars him from knowledge. Allah Most High says:

“Allah only accepts the repentance of those who do evil in ignorance and then repent soon afterward.”

Abū al-ʿĀliya said: “I asked the Companions of Muhammad, and they said: ‘Everyone who disobeys Allah