absolute existence, which they claimed was Allah, echoing the position of many ancient philosophers who denied the Maker and affirmed absolute existence, thereby making Pharaoh’s words valid:

“And what is the Lord of the worlds?”

Although the Muslim philosophers do not agree with this, but acknowledge the Lord from whom the world emanated, their exaltation of absolute existence brought them into agreement and drew them close to one another.

Anyone who considers the statements of al-Nusayr al-Tūsī, the Sabian philosopher; those of al-Sadr al-Qūnawī, the Christian philosopher who espoused the unity of existence; and those of the Ismailis in al-Balāgh al-Akbar and al-Nāmūs al-A‘zam—where it is stated, “The philosophers are the people closest to us. There is no disagreement between us and them except concerning the Necessary Existent: they acknowledge Him, whereas we deny Him”—will recognize the affinity between these people.

Likewise, anyone who examines the correspondence between al-Sadr and al-Nusayr, concerning al-Nusayr’s affirmation of the Necessary Existent according to the method of the Sabian philosophers, and al-Sadr’s identification of this with absolute rather than particular existence, which he claimed was Allah, will understand the truth of what I have said and how they agree in misguidance and unbelief. He will also understand that al-Nusayr is closer to the truth insofar as he acknowledges the Lord, the Maker, who is distinct from creation, but is further sunk in unbelief insofar as he is far removed from prophethood, revealed laws, and worship.

Al-Sadr, on the other hand, is closer to the truth insofar as he venerates acts of worship and prophethood, and practises religious devotion in the Christian manner. Yet he is further sunk in unbelief insofar as his object of worship has no reality: he worships only absolute existence, which has no reality outside the mind.