and it is known only after those principles are known. If its principles were known through its constituent questions, which themselves depend on those principles, circular reasoning would follow. Rather, its principles are accepted as given and posited within a higher science, until one reaches the highest science, which studies existence and its concomitants.

They say this about such disciplines as medicine and arithmetic. A physician, insofar as he is a physician, examines an animal’s body, humours, and organs to preserve its health if it is healthy and restore its health if it has been lost. The animal’s body is one of the things generated on earth, as are its humours. Broader than this is the study of things generated from the four elements: water, air, fire, and earth. Broader still is the study of bodies subject to transformation, then of body in the absolute sense. Thus, whenever a science concerns a subject comprising certain entities existing externally or in thought, a broader study concerns what that subject shares with others.

But to include knowledge of Allah—the highest and noblest of all sciences—in this scheme, making it a branch of what they regard as the highest science, namely the study of existence and its concomitants, and likewise including the associated knowledge of His angels, His Books, His messengers, and the Last Day: this is the source of their error in logical reasoning.

This becomes clear in several ways.

First: Allah, glorified is He, is the Most High and is greater than all else. Hence the distinguishing proclamation of the most perfect religion is “Allah is greater,” uttered by its adherents in their prayers, calls to prayer, and festivals. As the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said to ‘Adī ibn Hātim:

“O ‘Adī, what makes you flee? Does the declaration ‘There is no deity worthy of worship except Allah’ make you flee?