—universals apprehended in the human soul—just as the notion of separate entities originates in the soul’s separation from the body. Both of these are undeniable.

However, they make false claims about the soul’s attributes and states. They also assert the existence of intelligible substances subsisting in themselves, concerning which they say: “The one who understands, what is understood, and understanding itself are one and the same.” They say the same concerning the Lord of the worlds:

“He is the one who understands, what is understood, and understanding itself; the lover, the beloved, and love itself; that which gives delight, the one who experiences delight, and delight itself.”

They identify the attribute with the subject possessing it, and each attribute with every other attribute. Thus, they identify understanding itself—which is knowledge—with the one who understands and knows, and passionate love itself—which is love—with the passionate lover, the one who loves. They identify delight itself with knowledge itself and love itself. They also identify power and will with knowledge itself, making knowledge identical with power, will, love, and delight. They identify the one who knows, wills, loves, and experiences delight with knowledge itself, which they identify with will itself, love itself, and delight itself. Thus, they make distinct realities one and the same, and identify the various attributes themselves with the very essence that possesses them.

Then they contradict themselves by affirming that He has knowledge that is not identical with His essence, as Ibn Sīnā contradicted himself in his Ishārāt, as did other leading thinkers among them. A detailed refutation of them is given elsewhere.

The point is that they use the term “intellect” to designate a substance subsisting in itself, and affirm intelligible substances that they call “immaterial entities” and “entities separate from matter.” Yet when their position is rigorously examined, they have nothing beyond the human soul, which they call “rational,” and the quality subsisting in it that is called intellect.