these men, measured against the entirety of their theoretical philosophy and their practical philosophy concerning ethics, household management, and government. Thus, the Greeks were unbelieving polytheists who worshipped the heavenly bodies and idols, far worse than the Jews and Christians even after their religions had been abrogated and altered. Had Allah not favored them by bringing the religion of Christ to them, through which they acquired guidance and monotheism for as long as they adhered to his revealed law before its abrogation and alteration, they would have been like their fellow polytheists.

Then, when the religion of Christ was altered, they came to follow a religion combining pure monotheism and polytheism: some of it true and some false, yet better than the religion their forebears had followed.

Our concern here is with “exposing the misguidance of these philosophers,” who build their misguidance upon that of others, relying on falsehood in transmitted reports and ignorance in matters of reason. One example is their claim that Aristotle was the minister of Dhū al-Qarnayn, who is mentioned in the Quran. They say this because they have heard that he was Alexander’s minister, and Dhū al-Qarnayn is called Alexander. This reflects their ignorance: the Alexander whom Aristotle served as minister was the son of Philip the Macedonian. The Roman era familiar to Jews and Christians is reckoned from this Alexander. He only went as far as the Holy Land and did not reach the barrier, according to those acquainted with his history. He was a polytheist who worshipped idols.

Likewise, Aristotle and his people were polytheists who worshipped idols. Dhū al-Qarnayn, by contrast, was a monotheist who believed in Allah and lived before this Alexander. Those who call him Alexander say that he was Alexander son of Dārā.