and does not remain constant—except, of course, in matters which Allah’s established way has made common to people, such as arithmetic and natural science. These two disciplines are not the aim of the prophetic call, nor is knowledge of them a condition for attaining felicity or a means of securing it. Rather, the intended aim is the study of divine matters.

The premises of syllogisms in this field belong to the first category, in which judgments about premises vary according to their relation to particular people. Reflect on this, for it is a sound and beneficial insight of great importance. This discussion makes clear that, although the Quran is Allah’s speech, Allah attributes it to the messenger who conveys it, whether angelic or human. He attributes it to the angel in His words:

“So I swear by the retreating stars, those that run their courses and disappear,”

through to His words:

“Indeed, it is the word of a noble messenger, endowed with strength and firmly established with the Lord of the Throne, obeyed there and trustworthy.”

This is Gabriel, for these are his attributes, not those of Muhammad, may Allah bless him and grant him peace. Then He says:

“And your companion is not mad.”

He calls him our companion, reminding us of His favour upon us in making him our companion, just as He says:

“By the star when it descends, your companion has neither strayed nor erred.”

“And he certainly saw him on the clear horizon. And he does not withhold knowledge of the unseen.”

This refers to Muhammad—that is, he is not suspected of falsehood; according to the other reading, he is not withholding. Some would-be philosophers have claimed that this, too, refers to Gabriel, whom they identify as the active intellect, the source of emanation. This is a distortion of words from their proper places: Gabriel’s attributes have already been mentioned, whereas this describes Muhammad.

Then He says:

“And it is not the word of an accursed devil.”

Having established that it is the word of