certain, they also yield certainty. If they are known not to be certain, they yield only conjecture; and if the soul is aware of neither, what remains is mere belief, whose certainty is neither affirmed nor denied.
Wisdom in the Quran means knowing the truth, speaking it, and acting upon it, as I have explained elsewhere. Good exhortation combines assent to what is stated with obedience to what is commanded. Hence, exhortation in the Quran is used to mean commands and prohibitions accompanied by encouragement and warning, as in His words:
“If only they had done what they were instructed to do.”
And His words:
“Allah warns you against ever repeating anything like this.”
And His words:
“So We made it a deterrent to those present and those who came after them, and an admonition.”
That is, they take heed of it, becoming alert and deterred. Likewise, argument conducted in the best manner combines argument aimed at securing assent with argument aimed at securing obedience.
Second—this may also be subdivided to yield another point—it may be said that people fall into three categories. Those who acknowledge the truth and follow it possess wisdom. Those who acknowledge it but do not act upon it are exhorted until they act. Those who do not acknowledge it are engaged in argument in the best manner, because argument is liable to arouse anger. When conducted in the best manner, its benefit is attained to the fullest extent possible, as when repelling an assailant.
Third: Allah’s speech contains nothing but certain truth. It does not contain what distinguishes rhetoric and dialectic from demonstration: a premise that is widely accepted or conceded but not