that results from eating, and the loss of life that results from killing—most Muʿtazilites regard such effects as actions performed by the person. The proponents of compulsion, however, attribute no causal influence to the person’s action. Even where they are certain that something is a cause, they say: “The effect occurs when it occurs, not through it.” As for the early generations and the leading scholars, they do not regard a person as producing such effects in the same way that he performs his own bodily movements. They do not, however, rule out his contributing to their causes, or Allah’s having made his action, together with other factors, causes that bring about such effects.

Allah mentions both kinds in His Book, saying:

“This is because no thirst, fatigue, or hunger afflicts them in the cause of Allah, nor do they tread any ground that enrages the disbelievers, nor inflict any loss upon an enemy, without a righteous deed being recorded for them thereby. Indeed, Allah does not let the reward of those who do good go to waste.”

“Nor do they spend anything, small or great, or cross any valley, without it being recorded for them, so that Allah may reward them according to the best of what they used to do.”

Spending and travelling are their own actions, performed by them. Thus, concerning these He said, “without it being recorded for them,” rather than “without a righteous deed being recorded for them thereby.” These things are themselves deeds, so merely recording them fulfils the intended purpose. This is unlike thirst, fatigue, and hunger arising apart from jihad, and unlike the disbelievers’ rage at the losses inflicted upon them. These are not the people’s own actions; rather, they arise from causes that include their actions. Hence the Most High said:

“Without a righteous deed being recorded for them thereby.”

It is therefore clear that the effects arising from people’s actions count as deeds for them, because their actions were a cause of those effects. As the Prophet, may Allah bless him and grant him peace, said: “Whoever calls others to guidance will receive, by way of